This report provides the main findings from an assessment of significant changes, developments and threats in the Catchment of the Cubango/ Okavango River in Angola and Namibia (Catchment is hereafter capitalised). The report updates and adds to an earlier appraisal of threats and developments in 2018. 1 Large commercial and private business interests were then scarce and small in the Catchment. That has changed to a substantial and varied degree with many more people and enterprises making investments in the Catchment and earning incomes from those investments. These are to be seen in urban enterprises of different sizes, road-side markets, large agricultural projects, large-scale charcoal production, conservation areas, mining, and the mechanisation of smaller dryland farms and irrigation schemes, for example. In short, there have been major shifts in the Catchment from subsistence to income-based economic activities of various kinds and at different scales. Another conspicuous feature is in the rate at which urban centres have expanded. Towns that have grown most rapidly are the provincial administrative centres and towns located along major roads. Annual growth rates in the sizes of many such centres and towns have exceeded 10%, which means that they double in size every 8 or 9 years or less. By contrast, most rural and/or remote towns and villages have hardly changed in size, some growing a little while others have shrunk in recent years. Another major change is in the accelerated and greater use of land and river water for commercial agriculture. These are seen in large farms developed in Angola and in Namibia where government farms have been re-energised into commercial ventures (Musese, Shitemo, Mupapama and part of Mashare) and four other large private commercial agricultural schemes have been developed. In addition, many small horticultural units have been started, especially in Namibia where they are irrigated with Cubango/Okavango water. More households are now also supplied with river water extracted using privately-owned water pumps. Additionally, many moderately large dryland fields for cereals are now cleared and ploughed mechanically. It has long been assumed that the volumes of river water measured at Rundu were equivalent to those generated in the Cubango sub-catchment, implying insignificant water loss between the sub-catchment and Rundu. However, new measures of flow at various locations indicate that considerable volumes of river water are indeed lost from the Cubango/Okavango along the Angola/Namibia border. Water offtake has also increased in recent years to a substantial degree, by large irrigation schemes, water supplies to urban centres and rural households that now pump water for irrigation and for domestic uses. However, no substantive data are available on offtakes, and so developments and planning occur in a vacuum of information, with few or no controls or cautions on the exploitation of river water. The building of the large Ndué and Calucuve dams in Angola west of the Cubango is a concern. The dams will impound occasional flows of water along the Caundo and Cuvelai Rivers, but these ephemeral rivers drain small catchments of deep sands and therefore seldom carry significant flows. Plans have been developed to pump water from the Cubango River into the Ndué dam when additional water is needed, and the same may be needed for the Calucuve Dam. Namibia is developing potential plans to pump water out of the Cubango/Okavango at Rundu for use in Windhoek and other areas of central Namibia. The rates at which virgin land is cleared for shifting agriculture has perhaps increased, while large areas of the southern areas of the Catchment still burn very often. Many features and processes in the Catchment are poorly understood or documented, including the volumes of water lost to human uses, evaporation and seepage; the contributions of water made by the major rivers in the upper Catchment; levels of river water contamination by irrigation schemes and large urban areas; and factors affecting rates of miombo woodland regeneration. Most changes in the Catchment are driven or facilitated by several conditions: the widespread availability of free or comparatively cheap land and water; few or no controls on the use of land and water; increasing access to funds; the privatisation of communal land; the rapid growth of urban areas; widespread public apathy and public service inefficiency; and widely held misperceptions about farming, soil fertility, livelihood aspirations and needs, and the merits and demerits of rural and urban development.