Evidence of a decline in the range of elephants is provided by the survey carried out by Viljoen in 1982. The map in fig. 31 is somewhat misleading as all survey blocks in which elephants were seen are shaded even though elephants were unlikely to have been spread throughout the blocks. However, the occurrence of carcasses (cross-hatched areas) in areas where elephants are no longer found indicates a decrease in the range. Since the 1980s, the elephant counts have shown a consistent increase in the population (Fig. 32). This increase is statistically significant at 6.2% per annum (between 3.5% and 9%) between 1982 and 1998. Leaving out the most recent data gives a statistically significant increase of 5.2% per annum (between 1.7% and 8.7%). In normal conditions elephant populations seldom increase at more than about 6% per annum and it is possible that immigration from Etosha has supplemented the reproductive recruitment of elephants living in the harsh environment of Damaraland.